settlements took place with the Etrurians. As reported by Domenico Maria Manni from Florence between the 16th and the 18th century, legends tell that “Lucumone” Porsenna from Chiusi founded the first structures to use hot springs that would be called “Fonti Clusinii” by the Romans. During the following centuries Romans’ expansion led to Etrurians’ eclipse and some cities like Chiusi started to lose their power, this did not happen to San Casciano, appreciated by the Romans for its spas. Thanks to its strategic position on the way from Europe and Northern Italy to Rome, San Casciano had a big development and could be easily reached by people needing hot springs or mud treatments. The “Via Cassia”, one of the most important roads in the Roman civilisation, passed east by San Casciano, therefore many important persons came here, especially during the Roman Empire. The Romans loved spas and a lot of them used the chance of taking treatments in San Casciano. Many memorial tablets that appear on the surface in the country near San Casciano since many centuries show the presence of many Roman citizens. The most outstanding one is dedicated to Triaria, the emperor Vitellio’s wife. Ottaviano Augusto also took treatments here, as it is testified in Orazio’s and other Roman writers’ works. The vitality of this place is also testified by the early penetration of Christianity: in the fourth-fifth century San Casciano already had a parish called Santa Maria “ad balneo”. The barbarian invasions and fighting between Lombards and Byzantines reduced the importance of San Casciano, causing a big decrease in population. At the beginning of the new millennium San Casciano was losing inhabitants and becoming smaller and smaller, under the feudal control of the Visconti family from Campiglia. The village was surrounded on one side by the rule of San Salvatore Abbey, one of the most powerful in Tuscany and, on the other side, by the old Chiusi diocese. The first written information about San Casciano is from this period: the document relating when the marquis Hugo from Tuscany gave to San Salvatore Abbey the “Curtis de bagno” dates back to 995, as the emperors Ottone III and Enrico II confirmed later. Other pieces of information date back to the years 1014, 1020, 1067, 1075 and are all concerned with the Pieve Santa Maria, in 1191 the parish is mentioned again in one Papal bull from Celestino III, in 1226 Federico II confirms to the Visconti family their possession of San Casciano and of the castle of Fighine. Once again the proximity to a big road aided the development and the promotion of San Casciano spa. The Via Cassia had lost its importance during wars between Byzantines (coming from the area around Perugia) and Lombards (coming from the area around Siena) that were fighting in this area. In the end the latter diverted the old consular road to make it closer to their possessions, giving birth to the “Via Francigena” that passed just a few kilometres West from San Casciano. The constant flow of people from all over Europe coming to take treatments was obstructed, but not stopped, by the centuries-old struggle between the communes of Siena and Orvieto to possess this area, that became stronger at that time because of the ideological fights between Ghibellines (Siena) and Guelphs (Orvieto). The Visconti family, owner of San Casciano, could not resist the military and political supremacy of the two communes; they were therefore obliged to take sides sometimes with one, sometimes with the other, depending on the moment and on the needs. At first they were strong Ghibellines' supporters, so that they obtained from Federico Barbarossa the privilege of his protection, then, starting from September 10 1215, they became Guelphs’ supporters, especially under Pepo, and they took openly side with Orvieto and Florence against Siena. They were involved in the bloody battle of Montaperti (September 4 1260) where the strong Guelph army was destroyed by Siena. The most important change happened during the first half of the 14th century, when the Visconti family separated in two. One branch stayed in Campiglia under Siena influence, the other one moved to San Casciano and thanks to some arranged marriages got connected to the Cervara branch of the Monaldeschi family from Orvieto. San Casciano had a very important role in the long civil war between Cervara branch and Vipera branch (both from the Monaldeschi family) that took place in Orvieto. It was especially under Monaldo Visconti, the last seignior of the village, that San Casciano’s troops had important military successes against supporters of the “Monaldeschi della Vipera” branch, in the northern area of Orvieto’s possessions. The election of Monaldo as “Podestà” (chief of the commune) of Florence in 1389 shows the importance and the respect he had reached. Despite his commitment in Orvieto events Monaldo began a policy for a renewed approach to Siena, at first he signed some agreements in 1383 and 1386, then the final subjection was stated on June 15 1412. On May 3 1443 Monaldo died and his son Giovanni renounced his family’s claim to San Casciano and Fighine, so the Visconti family disappeared forever from San Casciano. Despite protection from Siena San Casciano was exposed to the danger of wars, because of its position as borderland. In 1455 San Casciano inhabitants had to fight hard to drive back the assault of the mercenary army commanded by Niccolò Piccinino. In 1495 they were sacked by Vitellozzo Vitelli’s troops. Under the influence of wars between France and Spain, during the first half of the 16th century, the area was in the middle of fights that ravaged the southern border of Siena’s state, until Siena surrendered to the imperial-Medician army. Still, terrible years followed, between 1555 and 1559, when exiles from the Republic of Siena that had retired in Montalcino organized a heroic resistance helped by San Casciano, until the Public Council on August 5 1559 deliberated the fidelity of San Casciano to Cosimo, the Duke of Florence. After the submission of Siena Cosimo could found the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, where S. Casciano could count on the support and protection of one of its most important citizens: Aurelio Manni, that had immediately sided with Cosimo during the war. He received many honours and charges from Cosimo and was the only citizen of Siena that ever held a place among revenue authorities in Florence. The renewed stillness and peace assured by the Grand Duchy aided the recovery of San Casciano’s spa that in the 17th and 18th centuries got their splendour back. Many people from all over Italy and Europe used to come to San Casciano to treat a lot of different diseases. The presence of many important representatives of Italian and European nobility had effects on the architectural aspect of San Casciano, which was enriched. In this period most façades of houses were adorned with portals, cornices and travertine architraves finely sculpted. In 1607 the Grand Duke Ferdinando I ordered to build a porch in the place where the spring Ficoncella appears on the surface, to testify the fame that these hot springs had reached. The parish was more and more frequently visited by major prelates and thus elevated, in 1618, to the status of “distinguished collegiate church” (Collegiata) and it was afterwards constantly enriched with altar clothes and holy vessels. The Grand Duke came again on October 24 1769: Pietro Leopoldo d’Asburgo Lorena visited San Casciano and was surprised by the abundance and warmth of hot springs. Once he went back to Florence, he allocated 21.000 Lire to finance the achievement of a road to connect the Via Romana. Pietro Leopoldo himself in 1777 gathered the following villages: Celle, Fighine, Camposervoli and Le Piazze together with San Casciano. (Later on Camposervoli and Le Piazze would be placed under the commune of Cetona). At the end of the 18th century San Casciano had a period of decline because its spas were not conformed to the standards of their sector any more. The 19th century began with the arrival of Napoleon that annexed Tuscany to the French Empire, then, during the Restoration period San Casciano became a part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany again. After the plebiscite held on March 11 and 12 1860, San Casciano and all the Tuscany joined the Italian Kingdom.

but unlike the thermal resort and the castle of Fighine, it did not remain under the control of the old feudal family, but ever since the end of the 14th century it became a part of the possessions of the Salimbeni family from Siena; especially with Cione di Sandro Salimbeni the village had several conflicts with Siena. On March 23 1384 Cione managed to recover the village and got the permission from Siena to rebuild the town walls and the fortress. In 1404 Cocco Salimbeni, son of Cione, declared his subjection to Siena, but the expected peace did not come quickly because of the conquest of Celle by Nanni Piccolomini, another member of Siena’s nobility. It was only on March 14 1418 that Celle joined definitively the Republic of Siena and was joined under the jurisdiction of San Casciano. Like all the castles of the area Celle remained loyal to Siena until August 5 1559, when also the last bulwark of liberty, represented by exiles from Siena retired in Montalcino, was destroyed by the predominant imperial and Medician armies joined together. The presence of the poet Giosuè Carducci is an outstanding event in the history of Celle. He came here to join his father Michele, who was a doctor. On April 3 1851 the commune of San Casciano dei Bagni called Michele Carducci to be the doctor of Celle sul Rigo. On July 26 1854 Michele Carducci resigned from his charge because of some conflicts with the gonfalon, but he continued to give his services in Celle until December 1855, since all the people had become fond of him.

the name “Fighine” and the word “figuline” referring to some roofing tiles used by the Etrurians to cover their buildings that were probably made in the village. It is more likely that the development of the village was connected to the control and the defence of the Via Cassia that in Roman times passed through the valley below Fighine, across Palazzone, on the way between Chiusi and Orvieto. Also during Lombard times Fighine had an important role of defence, when the old route traced by the Romans had lost its importance in this extreme end of the “Val di Chiana”, but borders between the Lombard kingdom and the Byzantine exarchate were traced very next to the village that became a defensive outpost of the new barbarian rulers. When Lombard possessions started to break up under Charlemagne’s army, the old duchy of Chiusi was divided into feuds that were assigned to Salic families. Fighine, like San Casciano and Celle became a possession of the Visconti family from Campiglia. During this period Fighine and San Casciano shared the same political destiny and the two communities developed a deep friendship that, except for some quarrels in the 16th century about borders, would lead even to the abolition of customs barriers for “a free and mutual commerce… with mutual custom franchise to extract corn from here (San Casciano) and pick it up every year after having sown it for the people from Fighine and the chance for our People to get wine from there without any toll, and this for anything the one or the other village may need.” The Visconti family separated in two during the 14th century: one branch stayed in Campiglia under Siena influence, the other one moved to San Casciano and got connected to Orvieto. Fighine was inside the possessions of Orvieto and had a part of this dominion by paying a large candle of 26 libras as annual census on the 14th of August of every year to the commune of Orvieto. In 1300, on the occasion of the first Jubilee, together with Orvieto, San Casciano and some other castles, Fighine sent thirty soldiers as guards for the security of Rome and of the Pope Bonifacio VIII. During the civil war in Orvieto the Visconti family took side with the Monaldeschi della Cervara family as a consequence of the marriage between Camilla Visconti and Corrado Monaldeschi. During the war, at the time of Giovanni de’ Prefetti di Vico’s government, Fighine and Camposervoli had their walls razed to the ground. Monaldo himself, the seignior of San Casciano was forced to reconquer Fighine two times: the first one in 1392 to take it back from Gian Tedesco, the second one in 1394, then he entrusted it to Bolognino Boccatorta, a lieutenant from his army. Monaldo began later a policy for a renewed approach to Siena, leading to the final subjection to Siena stated on June 15 1412. On May 3 1443 Monaldo died and his son Giovanni renounced his family’s claim to San Casciano and Fighine, to the advantage of the Sienese Republic. In the meantime Paolo Orsini had conquered Fighine and then he had sold it to the Pope for 200 fiorins in 1396, the Pope gave it later to Corrado and Luca Monaldeschi. In 1440, after having occupied Chiusi, Baldaccio d’Anghiari, a commander of a group of mercenaries, took also possession of Fighine, and he organised an army from here to conquer Suvereto that he took by surprise. He gave Suvereto back to the state of Piombino only after the payment of 9000 fiorins. After having tried to conquer Suvereto again Baldaccio was called in Florence under some pretexts and was there assassinated. Siena, having heard about his death, sent its army to Fighine and received from the village a submission request (October 2 1441). Siena encouraged moreover the repopulation of Fighine as a colony, since continual wars and devastations had caused a big decrease in population. In 1451 the papal army occupied Fighine until April 21 1464, when the Pope Pio II, from the family Piccolomini from Siena, assigned Fighine to the vicariate of Siena forever. On May 19 1464 Fighine renewed its submission to Siena, and the latter, acknowledging Fighine’s devotion, confirmed all the privileges and tax exemptions that had already been granted to the village. In 1465 the Pope Paolo II succeeded to Pio II and claimed the restitution of Fighine, Siena was able, however, to convince him on the legitimacy of its reasons, so, on February 27 1467, Messer Binda from Siena and Giacomo Donato from the Papal States stated the respective borders in the area around Fighine. The final subjection to Siena allowed the finishing of the works for the construction of Fighine’s castle that had started in 1446 under the direction of Bartolomeo di Biagio de Stinis. From reports and tenders it is possible to notice that the castle wanted by Siena had a quadrangular plan and was bounded at the summits by four towers: the old tower (the quadrangular one, that was adapted to the new military requirements thanks to the building of the buttress and to the restoration of merlons and brackets), the main tower, the half round tower and the tower called “saracinesca”. The latter does not appear on the above-mentioned documents, but it appears on subsequent documents and likely had the function to protect the entrance of the castle. A relief in the soil was also lowered on the western side, as it was the only real danger for an artillery attack. Once the construction of the castle was finished, Fighine had a short period of peace, until it was indirectly involved in the wars between France and Spain. At the beginning of the 16th century this area was in fact exposed to raids from the armies of Renzo da Ceri, of the Baglioni family, of the Vitelli family and of Francesco Maria della Rovere, the Duke of Urbino. The latter caused serious damage to Fighine, so that Siena allowed many immunities and exemptions to the village as compensation. When the final fight between Siena and Florence was approaching (1553-1555 war and resistance of Sienese exiles in Montalcino between 1555 and 1559) Fighine was having serious problems because of war and of the big expenses caused by maintenance of troops. When Siena fell on April 21 1555 the fighting moved, since people from Siena moved to the Val d’Orcia and created the “Retired Republic of Siena” in Montalcino where they tried a last defence, waiting in vain for a strong French intervention to help them. Despite financial problems caused by war Fighine took side with the exiles of Montalcino. When also Montalcino surrendered the old Sienese Republic lost its independence and on August 5 1559, also Fighine decided to send its parish priest, Pietro Paolo Priori from San Casciano, to swear allegiance to Cosimo who was to be named the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The most important event that happened in Fighine during the Grand Duchy was the nomination as feudatory for the Marquis Angelo del Bufalo, made by the Grand Duke Ferdinando I in 1606. On June 2 1777 the Grand Duke Pietro Leopoldo enacted a law that gathered together Celle, Fighine, Camposervoli and Le Piazze under San Casciano. At the beginning of the 19th century the Marquis del Bufalo family transferred its estate in Fighine to the family Bologna. The historian Gherardini mentions two important personalities that were born in Fighine in his report to the Grand Duke: Messer Baldo di Fino, that was charged with trade in Lombardy for the king of France in 1297 and the parish priest Zampo, named bishop of Sovana in 1302.

of the Roman Via Cassia on the way between Orvieto and Chiusi, and it was like a trading centre for the overlooking castle of Fighine. The name “Stabbiano” (from Latin “stabulum”), with the names “Villa San Pellegrino” and “Palazzone” that can be found in a decree from marquis Gotofredo suggest the typical characteristics of a post stage. The possibility to exchange goods was another function in addition to the possibility to stop, as it is testified in directions from the beginning of the 16th century about a market held in Palazzone by the people from Fighine. The lack in the development of regular settlements in the area has obstructed the recognition of Palazzone as an independent community, also from a religious point of view the status of “parish” was recognised only on October 29 1794, thanks to the gathering of Sasso, Stabbiano di Sopra, Stabbiano di Sotto, and Cupa together with Palazzone.